Â鶹´«Ã½

Skip to main content
School of Engineering
Search for something
Search...

Staff Profile

Dr Umair Ahmed

Senior Lecturer in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Thermofluids

  • Email: umair.ahmed@ncl.ac.uk
  • Telephone: 0191 208 3625
  • Address: School of Engineering,
    Room 4.010, 4th Floor,
    Stephenson Building,
    Â鶹´«Ã½,
    Â鶹´«Ã½ upon Tyne,
    NE1 7RU
Background

Dr Umair Ahmed obtained his undergraduate degree in mechanical engineering with 1st class Hons and the best overall performance award from the University of Manchester in 2010, which was followed by a PhD in mechanical engineering with an emphasis on Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and computational combustion at the University of Manchester in 2014. He joined Â鶹´«Ã½ as a Lecturer in 2019, prior to this he has worked as a Research Associate at Â鶹´«Ã½ (2017-2019) and as a Research Associate and Teaching Fellow at the University of Manchester (2013-2017). 

Dr Ahmed's research interests include Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), with a focus on turbulence, heat transfer, computational combustion, multiphase flows and non-Newtonian fluid flows. As part of his research he has been involved in several projects which range from Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of full scale rotating marine turbines, modelling of non-Newtonian fluids in industrial scale mixers, Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) simulation of premixed turbulent combustion to Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) of turbulence and combustion in free shear and wall bounded flows. Furthermore, he has also been involved in developing mathematical models for turbulence and combustion under the RANS and LES frameworks.

Areas of expertise

  • Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
  • Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) of turbulence, scalar mixing, heat transfer and combustion
  • Modelling and simulation of turbulence, scalar mixing, heat transfer and combustion under Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) frameworks
  • Heat transfer modelling
  • Numerical modelling of Non-Newtonian fluid flows


Memberships

  • Member of the Combustion Institute (British Section)
  • Member of UK Turbulence Consortium
  • Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (FHEA)
  • Member of the International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research (IAHR)
  • Member of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Peer Review College


Awards

  • 23rd (2023) from the International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research (IAHR) for the most outstanding paper published in the Journal of Hydraulic Research between 2020 and 2022.
  • Awarded prize for the best presentation and the use of audio/visual aids in the UK Consortium on Turbulent Reacting flows (UKCTRF) annual meeting (2018).
  • Nominated and shortlisted for the award of “Best Postgraduate Teacher” by the students’ union at the University of Manchester (2013).
  • Best Overall Performance Award for Undergraduate Degree in Mechanical Engineering at The University of Manchester (2010).



Roles and Responsibilities

  • Member of the Royal Society Committee (2025-present)
  • Member of the (UKTC) management committee (2025-present)
  • Editorial Board Member for peer-reviewed journal (2024-present)
  • Stage-4 year tutor for MEng in Mechanical Engineering (2023-Present).
  • PGR Selector for Fluid Dynamics and Thermal Systems Group (2023-Present).
  • Academic IT lead for the Stephenson Operational Group (new Stephenson building) (2023).
  • Represent Â鶹´«Ã½ on the (N8 CIR) Steering Group (2022-Present).
  • Member of the School of Engineering Online Facilitation Group (OFG) to facilitate online teaching of engineering (2020-2021).
  • Steering Group member for the High Performance Computing (HPC) facility () at Â鶹´«Ã½ (2019-Present).
  • Member of the NSS action plan committee for Mechanical Engineering (2019-2020).
Research

Research Areas

  • Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).
  • Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) of turbulence, scalar mixing, heat transfer and combustion.
  • Modelling and simulation of turbulence, scalar mixing, heat transfer and combustion under Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (RANS) frameworks.
  • Heat transfer modelling.
  • Numerical modelling of Non-Newtonian fluid flows.
  • Developing new algorithms and open source CFD software for high performance computing (HPC) platforms.


Current Research Projects

Flame-wall interaction within turbulent boundary layers: Performing high-fidelity Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) for premixed flames interacting with inert walls under fully developed turbulent boundary layer conditions. The data is then used to develop modelling strategies for simulating flows of industrial relevance using the RANS and LES frameworks.

Response of hydrogen flames to thermoacoustic excitation: Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) calculations carried out for the response of hydrogen flames under different strain rate and thermoacoustic excitation levels. The results from this research are important from the point of view of developing stable gas turbine engines, which use hydrogen as a fuel, for power generation and aerospace industries.

Algorithms for Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR): Developing high-order/high-resolution algorithms for unstructured AMR techniques which can be used for simulating reacting flows, multi-phase flows and high-speed flows including supersonic and hypersonic flows.


Grants and Fellowships

2025: EPSRC APP84544: (AIRTUK) The UK Artificial Intelligence for Turbulence Research Hub (Co-I)

2024: EPSRC research grant EP/Y017951/1 : Investigation of the influence of extinction strain rates and heat release rate on the stability of swirl stabilised hydrogen premixed flames (PI)

2023: EPSRC ARCHER2 pioneer project: Computational investigation of hydrogen-air premixed swirl flames (PI)

2021: EPSRC Access to High-Performance Computing: Modelling and Simulation of multi-physics reacting jet flows (PI)

2020: EPSRC ARCHER2 pioneer project: Flame-wall interaction of high hydrogen content premixed flames within turbulent boundary layers (PI)

2020: EPSRC research grant EP/V003534/1: A combined experimental and numerical investigation of premixed flame-wall interaction in turbulent boundary layers (Co-I)

2018: Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science short term fellowship: Collaborative research at Kyoto University on flame-wall interaction of hydrogen combustion (PI)

2010: The University of Manchester: Overseas Research Studentship (ORS) award for PhD in Computational Fluid Dynamics and Computational Combustion.

Teaching

Current Teaching:

  • MEC8062: Turbulent Fluid Flow and Modelling (2023-Present)
  • MEC8099: Mechanical Engineering Team Project (module leader) (2023-Present)
  • MEC3032: Advanced Thermofluid Dynamics (module leader) (2022-Present)
  • MEC3098: Mechanical Engineering Project (2019-Present)
  • MEC8095: MSc Project (2019-Present)

Previous Teaching:

  • MEC3028: Computational Heat & Fluid Flow (module leader) (2020-2023)
  • MEC8043: Software in the Professional Engineering Context (2019-2020)
Publications

  • Articles

    • Ghai SK, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2026, 116, 18.
    • Michael V, Liu L, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2026, 116(1), 16.
    • Mohan V, Young FW, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2025, 145, 1019-1032.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Combustion Science and Technology 2025, 197(12), 2854-2886.
    • Young FW, Ahmed U. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2025, 41, 105950.
    • Young FW, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Fuel 2025, 381(Part B), 133363.
    • Mohan V, Young FW, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2025, 98, 35-51.
    • Mohan V, Lindley S, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2025, 37(8), 085226.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2025, 114, 421–448.
    • Chakraborty N, Young FW, Mohan V, Ahmed U. . Combustion Science and Technology 2025, epub ahead of print.
    • Mohan V, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2025, 114, 1361-1376.
    • Michael V, Liu L, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Combustion Science and Technology 2025, epub ahead of print.
    • Kai R, Pillai AL, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Combustion Science and Technology 2025, 197(1), 32-58.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2024, 112, 845-878.
    • Ahmed U, Ghai S, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2024, 36(4), 045120.
    • Abo-Amsha K, Awad HSAM, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Swaminathan N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2024, 112, 1191-1213.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Computation 2024, 12(6), 114.
    • Chakraborty N, Dopazo C, Dunn H, Ahmed U. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2024, 112, 793-809.
    • Ozel-Erol G, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Combustion Science and Technology 2024, 196(13), 1990-2019.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Physical Review Fluids 2024, 9(11), 113201.
    • Ahmed U, Ghai S, Chakraborty N. . Energies 2024, 17(8), 1930.
    • Ahmed U, Ghai SK, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2024, 112, 1161-1190.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2024, 112, 897-915.
    • Liu L, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Fluids 2024, 9(2), 42.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2023, 39(2), 2169-2178.
    • Varma A, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2023, 111, 531-565.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2023, 111, 825-866.
    • Ahmed U, Malkeson SP, Pillai A, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Physical Review Fluids 2023, 8, 023202.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2023, 111, 769-797.
    • Ghai SK, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2023, 111, 867-895.
    • Varma A, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2023, 39(2), 2319-2328.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Swaminathan N, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2023, 111, 799-823.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 108, 1089–1114.
    • Chakraborty N, Rasool R, Ahmed U, Klein M. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 109, 791-812.
    • Ghai SK, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Entropy 2022, 24(4), 463.
    • Ghai S, Chakraborty N, Ahmed U, Klein M. . Physics of Fluids 2022, 34(7), 075124.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2022, 196, 123230.
    • Varma AR, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Combustion Theory and Modelling 2022, 26(4), 686-711.
    • Varma AR, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 109, 143-173.
    • Varma A, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 108, 181-212.
    • Chakraborty N, Herbert A, Ahmed U, Im HG, Klein M. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 108, 489-507.
    • Awad HS, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2022, 34(5), 055120.
    • Cant RS, Ahmed U, Fang J, Chakraborty N, Nivarti G, Moulinec C, Emerson DR. . Journal of Computational Physics 2022, 468, 111480.
    • Chakraborty N, Ahmed U, Klein M, Im HG. . Physics of Fluids 2022, 34(6), 065120.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2022, 109, 351–382.
    • Young FW, Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Energies 2022, 15(23), 9188.
    • Lai J, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 2022, 93, 108896.
    • Ahmed U, Apsley D, Stallard T, Stansby P, Afgan I. . Journal of Hydraulic Research 2021, 59(1), 36-50.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2021, 106, 701-732.
    • Kasten C, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2021, 33(1), 015111.
    • Ahmed U, Herbert A, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2021, 38(2), 3039-3047.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 2021, 92, 108881.
    • Ozel-Erol G, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2021, 38(2), 3351-3359.
    • Malkeson SP, Ahmed U, Pillai A, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Physics of Fluids 2021, 33(3), 035114.
    • Chakraborty N, Kasten C, Ahmed U, Klein M. . Physics of Fluids 2021, 33, 125132.
    • Malkeson SP, Ahmed U, Pillai AL, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2021, 106, 207-229.
    • Varma A, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . Combustion and Flame 2021, 233, 111569.
    • Konstantinou I, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Combustion Science and Technology 2021, 193(2), 235-265.
    • Varma AR, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2021, 33(3), 035102.
    • Awad H, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Energies 2021, 14(22), 7677.
    • Keil FB, Amzehnhoff M, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Energies 2021, 14(17), 5548.
    • Keil FB, Amzehnhoff M, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Energies 2021, 14(18), 5695.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Combustion and Flame 2021, 233, 111575.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2020, 32(12), 125111.
    • Ahmed U, Pillai AL, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Physics of Fluids 2020, 32(5), 055112.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Fluids 2020, 5(2), 89.
    • Tan G, Ahmed U, Wang L, Chakraborty N. . Physics of Fluids 2020, 32(12), 125110.
    • Malkeson SP, Ahmed U, Turquand d'Auzay C, Pillai AL, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Fuel 2020, 286(Part 1), 119242.
    • Herbert A, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Combustion Theory and Modelling 2020, 24(6), 1021-1038.
    • Ahmed U, Turquand d'Auzay C, Muto M, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 2019, 37(3), 2821-2830.
    • Turquand d'Auzay C, Ahmed U, Pillai A, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Fuel 2019, 247, 198-208.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Lipatnikov A. . Physics of Fluids 2019, 31(11), 115109.
    • Ahmed U, Pillai A, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . Physical Review Fluids 2019, 4, 103201.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Scientific Reports 2019, 9, 5092.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . Combustion Science and Technology 2019, 191(5-6), 898-920.
    • Ahmed U, Doan NAK, Lai J, Klein M, Chakraborty N, Swaminathan N. . Physics of Fluids 2018, 30(10), 105102.
    • Ahmed U, Michael V, Hou R, Mothersdale T, Prosser R, Kowalski A, Martin P. . Chemical Engineering Research and Design 2018, 133, 398-406.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2018, 100(1), 39-73.
    • Ahmed U, Apsley D, Afgan I, Stallard T, Stansby P. . Renewable Energy 2017, 112, 235-246.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R. . Combustion Theory and Modelling 2016, 20(1), 34-57.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R, Revell A. . Flow, Turbulence and Combustion 2014, 93(4), 637-663.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R, Revell A. . ERCOFTAC Bulletin 2014, 96.

  • Conference Proceedings (inc. Abstracts)

    • Mohan V, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 2nd International Conference on Mechanical Engineering. 2024, Kolkata, India: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Jadavpur University.
    • Ghai SK, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 12th Mediterranean Combustion Symposium. 2023, Luxor, Egypt: The Combustion Institute.
    • Ahmed U, Ghai S, Liu L, Chakraborty N. . In: 11th European Combustion Meeting (ECM 2023). 2023, Rouen, France: Combustion Institute.
    • Mohan V, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 14th International Conference on Computational Heat and Mass Transfer (ICCHMT 2023). 2023, Düsseldorf, Germany.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: 11th European Combustion Meeting (ECM 2023). 2023, Rouen, France: Combustion Institute.
    • Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 14th International ERCOFTAC Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurements (ETMM14). 2023, Barcelona, Spain.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 12th Mediterranean Combustion Symposium. 2023, Luxor, Egypt: The Combustion Institute.
    • Chakraborty N, Dopazo C, Dunn H, Ahmed U. . In: 12th Mediterranean Combustion Symposium. 2023, Luxor, Egypt: The Combustion Institute.
    • Ozel-Erol G, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 29th International Colloquium on Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems. 2023, South Korea.
    • Chakraborty N, Ghai S, Ahmed U. . In: 14th International ERCOFTAC Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurements (ETMM14). 2023, Barcelona, Spain.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 15th International Conference on Combustion Technologies for a Clean Environment (CleanAir 2023). 2023, Lisbon.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 11th European Combustion Meeting (ECM 2023). 2023, Rouen, France: Combustion Institute.
    • Awad HSAM, Abo-Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 29th International Colloquium on Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems. 2023, South Korea.
    • Cant RS, Ahmed U, Fang J, Chakraborty N, Moulinec C, Emerson D. . In: 18th International Conference on Numerical Combustion. 2022, San Diego, USA.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 33rd Parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics conference. 2022, Alba, Italy.
    • Ahmed U, Ghai S, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: 17th UK Heat Transfer Conference. 2022, University of Manchester; Online.
    • Chakraborty N, Ahmed U, Ghai S. . In: 5th International Symposium on Convective Heat and Mass Transfer (CONV-22). 2022, Izmir, Turkey.
    • Ghai S, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 33rd Parallel Computational Fluid Dynamics conference (ParCFD 2022). 2022, Alba, Italy.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: 18th International Conference on Numerical Combustion. 2022, San Diego, USA.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: 10th European Combustion Meeting. 2021, Naples, Italy.
    • Umair A, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: Engineering, Turbulence, Modelling and Measurements (ETMM13). 2021, Rhodes, Greece.
    • Varma A, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: Engineering, Turbulence, Modelling and Measurements (ETMM13). 2021, Rhodes, Greece: ERCOFTAC.
    • Awad H, Aboo Amsha K, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: European Combustion Meeting. 2021, Naples, Italy: ECM.
    • Brearley P, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: European Combustion Meeting. 2021, Naples, Italy (Virtual): ECM.
    • Lai J, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . In: Engineering, Turbulence, Modelling and Measurements (ETMM13). 2021, Rhodes, Greece: ERCOFTAC.
    • Konstantinou I, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: International Workshop on Clean Combustion: Principles and Applications. 2019, Darmstadt.
    • Ahmed U, Pillai A, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . In: 11th Mediterranean Combustion Symposium. 2019, Tenerife, Spain: International Centre for Heat and Mass Transfer.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: International Workshop on Clean Combustion: Principles and Applications. 2019, Darmstadt.
    • Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . In: 27th International Colloquium on Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems. 2019, Beijing, China: Institute for Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems.
    • Konstantinou I, Ahmed U, Klein M, Chakraborty N. . In: 9th European Combustion Meeting (ECM 2019). 2019, Lisboa, Portugal.
    • Ahmed U, Pillai AL, Chakraborty N, Kurose R. . In: 12th Asia-Pacific Conference on Combustion (ASPACC 2019). 2019, Fukuoka: Combustion Institute.
    • Konstantinou I, Ahmed U, Chakraborty N. . In: 27th International Colloquium on Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems. 2019, Beijing, China: Institute for Dynamics of Explosions and Reactive Systems.
    • Ahmed U, Chakraborty N, Klein M. . In: 12th International ERCOFTAC Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurement (ETMM12). 2018, Montpelier, France.
    • Michael V, Bagkeris I, Ahmed U, Prosser R, Kowalski A. . In: 12th International ERCOFTAC Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurement (ETMM12). 2018, Montpelier, France.
    • Ahmed U, Lai J, Doan NAK, Klein M, Chakraborty N, Swaminathan N. . In: 12th International ERCOFTAC Symposium on Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Measurement (ETMM12). 2018, Montpelier, France.
    • Ahmed U, Nivarti G, Zimon M, Prosser R, Cant R. . In: Sixteenth SIAM International Conference on Numerical Combustion. 2017, Orlando, FL, USA: SIAM.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R, Kowalski A. . In: 9th International Symposium on Mixing in Industrial Processes. 2017, Birmingham, UK.
    • Ahmed U, Afgan I, Apsley D, Stallard T, Stansby P. . In: Oxford Tidal Energy Workshop. 2015, Oxford, UK: Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL).
    • Ahmed U, Afgan I, Apsley D, Stallard T, Stansby P. . In: 11th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference. 2015, Nantes, France.
    • Ahmed U, Prosser R, Revell A. A transport equation for flame turbulence interaction in premixed turbulent combustion. In: European Combustion Meeting. 2013, Lund, Sweden.

  • Report

    • Afgan I, Ahmed U, Apsley D, Stallard T, Stansby P. . UK: Energy Technologies Institute, 2014. MD1.4.